The roman civilization

Monarchy (founding of Rome to the 6th century BC)

Rome was born from a small village in the fertile lands of Lazio, center of the Italian peninsula, receiving influence from several Indo-European peoples who settled in the region since the 10th century BC, such as the Latin Falisci and Sabines.

The monarchic period, which comprises the rule of the last three kings (Tarquinius the Elder; Servius Tullius; and Tarquinius the Superb), refers to the period of Etruscan domination, and there are historical records of its existence.

During this period, Rome had an essentially agricultural economy. From a social point of view, the Roman elite was formed by the patricians, large landowners who constituted an aristocracy with political and religious privileges. Below them were the commoners, free men who had no political rights and were therefore marginalized. In the lowest social situation were the slaves, indebted or defeated in wars, considered simple instruments of work and still few in number in the monarchic period.

From a political point of view, the king accumulated executive, judicial and religious functions, but his power was controlled by the Senate or Council of Elders, dominated by the patricians. The set of citizens of military age and able to fight formed the Assembly or Curia.

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Republic (6th century BC - 1st century BC)

The republican government came to be exercised by the magistrates, with advice from the Senate. In practice, the maximum body of power in the new political structure established in Rome was the Senate, which exercised legislative functions and controlled all administration and finances, even having the power to declare wars. Its members came from a restricted group of wealthy families and were for life.

The magistrates were:

• Consuls: always two in number, they were the most important magistrates, proposing laws, presiding over the Senate and assemblies and, in case of war, appointing a temporary dictator;
• Praetors: administered justice;
• Censors: counted and classified the population according to income;
• Aediles: they took care of the conservation, supply and policing of the city;
• Quaestors: in charge of the public treasury, that is, of government finances.

In 450 BC the Law of the Twelve Tables, the first compilation of Roman laws, was elaborated. Until then the laws were transmitted orally and almost always manipulated in favor of the patricians; now the laws were written down and displayed on boards in the Roman forum building, for everyone's knowledge. In 445 BC, marriage between patricians and plebeians was permitted. In 367 BC, commoners gained access to public lands.

The patricians attached to the Senate were the largest landowners. The small plebeian landowners of the Italian peninsula, not finding conditions to survive in the countryside, sold their land and turned into cheap labor in the city.

Social tension increased. A new attempt to overcome the crisis was the idea of ​​agrarian reform, proposed by the brothers Tibério and Caio Graco, who held the position of plebeian tribunes and saw in the distribution of land a way to overcome the crisis, satisfying the needs of the impoverished plebs.

In 133 BC, Tiberius Gracchus proposed that state lands should be distributed to poor citizens. Under strong opposition from Roman elites, this proposal by Tiberius was approved, but its execution was eventually prevented.

The constant power struggles between the military resulted in the creation of triumvirates, governments of three political-military leaders – which also ended up sharpening differences. The first triumvirate was formed by Gaius Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. This was followed by the proclamation of Caesar's dictatorship for life and his assassination, in the Senate, in 44 BC.

Then followed the second triumvirate, formed by Mark Antony, Octavius ​​and Lepidus, giving rise to new confrontations. Octavius, in 31 BC, managed to defeat his rivals and received from the Senate the titles of princeps ('first citizen') and imperator ('the supreme'). He ascribed to himself the title of augustus ('the divine'). Concentrating the powers in his hands and carrying out a series of reforms, Otávio Augusto overthrew the Republic and established the Empire.

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References

VICENTINO, Cláudio; DORIGO, Gianpaolo. General and Brazilian History: Volume 1. 2nd Edition. São Paulo: Editora Scpione, 2013.